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Chapter 5 Summary
The Communication Process
The function of
all elements of the promotional mix is to communicate, so promotional planners
must understand the communication process. This process can be very complex;
successful marketing communications depend on a number of factors, including
the nature of the message, the audience’s interpretation of it, and the
environment in which it is received. For effective communication to occur, the
sender must encode a message in such a way that it will be decoded by the
receiver in the intended manner. Feedback from the receiver helps the sender
determine whether proper decoding has occurred or whether noise has interfered
with the communication process.
Basic Model
of Communication Process
•
Source/Sender
– the person or organization that has information to share
•
Receiver –
person(s) with whom the sender is sharing thoughts
•
Message –
the information the source hopes to convey
•
Channel –
method by which the communication travels from source to receiver
•
Encoding –
putting thoughts, ideas, or information into symbolic form
•
Decoding –
transforming the senders message back into thought
•
Response –
receiver’s reactions after seeing, hearing, or reading the message
•
Feedback –
part of the receiver’s response that is communicated back to the sender
•
Noise –
unplanned distortion or interference
Successful
communication is accomplished when the marketer selects an appropriate source,
develops an effective message or appeal that is encoded properly, and then
selects the channels or media that will best reach the target audience so that
the message can be effectively decoded and delivered.
Marketers are very
interested in feedback, that part of the receiver’s response that is
communicated back to the sender. Feedback, which may take a variety of forms,
closes the loop in the communications flow and lets the sender monitor how the
intended message is being decoded and received.
Identifying Target
Audience
The marketing
communications process begins with identifying the audience that will be the
focus of the firm’s advertising and promotional efforts. The target audience may consist of
individuals, groups, niche markets, market segments, or a mass audience:
• Individuals
– those with specific needs for whom a message must be specifically tailored
• Small groups
– multiple people in the audience who are involved in the purchase decision
such as families or people who members of a buying center
• Niche markets
– smaller, well-defined markets
consisting of customers who have similar needs
• Market segments – broader classes of people who have similar needs and can be reached
with similar messages
• Mass markets
– markets consisting of large numbers of potential customers
The Response
Process
The most important aspect of developing
effective communication programs involves understanding the response process the receiver may go
through in moving toward a specific behavior (like purchasing a product) and
how the promotional efforts of the marketer influence consumer responses. In
many instances, the marketer’s only objective may be to create awareness of the
company or brand name, which may trigger interest in the product. In other
situations, the marketer may want to convey detailed information to change
consumers’ knowledge of and attitudes toward the brand and ultimately change
their behavior.
The four models of the response process are:
•
AIDA
model – developed to depict the stages in the personal selling process
•
Hierarchy
of effects model – shows the process by which advertising works
•
Innovation
adoption model – shows the stages a consumers passes through in the process of
adopting a new product
•
Information
processing model – a model of the process through which a consumer must pass to
be influenced by advertising
Alternative
Response Hierarchies
Michael Ray has developed a model of
information processing that identifies three alternative orderings of the three
stages based on perceived product differentiation and product
involvement. The three alternative
hierarchies include:
• The Standard Learning Hierarchy = learnà feelà do sequence. The consumer is viewed as an active
participant and this sequence is likely when there is much differentiation
among brands and the consumer is highly involved in the purchase process.
• The Dissonance/Attribution Hierarchy = doà feelà learn sequence. Occurs when consumers must choose between
two alternatives that are similar in quality but are complex and may have
unknown attributes. Focus of mass media
should be on reducing dissonance after purchase.
• Low involvement Hierarchy = learnà –àdo àfeel sequence. Occurs when involvement in the purchase
decision is low, there are minimal differences among brand alternatives, and
mass-media advertising is important.
The cognitive
response approach
The cognitive response approach has been widely
used in research by both academicians and advertising practitioners. Its focus
has been to determine the types of responses evoked by an advertising message
and how these responses relate to attitudes toward the ad, brand attitudes, and
purchase intentions. The three basic categories of cognitive responses which
the researchers have identified are:
•
Product/message
thoughts
•
Source-oriented
thoughts
•
Ad
execution thoughts
The cognitive
response approach examines the thoughts evoked by a message and how they shape
the receiver’s ultimate acceptance or rejection of the communication. The
elaboration likelihood model of attitude formation and change recognizes two
forms of message processing, the central and peripheral routes to persuasion,
which are a function of the receiver’s motivation and ability to process a
message. There are three critical intermediate effects between advertising and purchase
including cognition, affect, and experience. Those responsible for planning the
IMC program should learn as much as possible about their target audience and
how it may respond to advertising and other forms of marketing communications.
Chapter 4 Summary
Chapter 4 Summary
Perspectives on Consumer Behaviour
This chapter
deals with the field of consumer behaviour and examined its relevance to
promotional strategy. Consumer behaviour is best viewed as the process and
activities that people engage in when searching for, selecting, purchasing,
using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services to satisfy their
needs and desires.
A five-stage
model of the consumer decision-making process consists of problem recognition,
information search, alternative evaluation, purchase, and post purchase
evaluation. Internal psychological processes that influence the consumer
decision-making process include motivation, perception, attitude formation and
change, and integration processes.
This was
followed by in-depth discussion of each stage.
Problem
Recognition & Motivation
Various sources
of problem recognition, both internal and external, were discussed. The sources
are:
·
Out of stock
·
Dissatisfaction
·
New Needs/Wants
·
Related Products/Purchases
·
Marketer-Induced Problem
Recognition
·
New Products
Information
Search & Perception
The second stage
in the consumer decision-making process is information search. Once consumers
perceive a problem or need that can be satisfied by the purchase of a product
or service, they begin to search for information needed to make a purchase
decision.
The initial
search effort often consists of an attempt to scan information stored in memory
to recall past experiences and/or knowledge regarding various purchase
alternatives. This information retrieval is referred to as internal search. For
many routine, repetitive purchases, previously acquired information that is
stored in memory (such as past performance or outcomes from using a brand) is
sufficient for comparing alternatives and making a choice.
If the internal
search does not yield enough information, the consumer will seek additional
information by engaging in external search. External sources of information include:
o
Personal sources, such as
friends, relatives, or co-workers.
o
Marketer-controlled
(commercial) sources, such as information from advertising,
o
Salespeople, or
point-of-purchase displays and the Internet.
o
Public sources, including
articles in magazines or newspapers and reports on TV.
o
Personal experience, such as
actually handling, examining, or testing the product.
Alternative Evaluation & Attitude Formation
After acquiring information during the
information search stage of the decision process, the consumer moves to
alternative evaluation. In this stage, the consumer compares the various brands
or products and services one has identified as being capable of solving the
consumption problem and satisfying the needs or motives that initiated the decision
process.
The various brands identified as purchase
options to be considered during the alternative evaluation process are referred
to as the consumer’s evoked set.
Purchase Decision
& Integration
At some point in the buying process, the
consumer must stop searching for and evaluating information about alternative
brands in the evoked set and makes a purchase decision. As an outcome of the
alternative evaluation stage, the consumer may develop a purchase intention or
predisposition to buy a certain brand. Purchase intentions are generally based
on a matching of purchase motives with attributes or characteristics of brands
under consideration. Their formation involves many of the personal
sub-processes discussed in this chapter, including motivation, perception,
attitude formation and integration.
A purchase decision is not the same as an
actual purchase. Once a consumer chooses which brand to buy, he or she must
still implement the decision and make the actual purchase. Additional decisions
may be needed, such as when to buy, where to buy, and how much money to spend.
Often, there is a time delay between the formation of a purchase intention or
decision and the actual purchase, particularly for highly involved and complex
purchases such as automobiles, personal computers, and consumer durables.
Post-purchase Evaluation & Learning
The consumer decision process does not end with
the purchase. After using the product or service, the consumer compares the
level of performance with expectations and is either satisfied or dissatisfied.
Satisfaction occurs when the consumer’s expectations are either met or
exceeded; dissatisfaction results when performance is below
expectations. The post-purchase evaluation process is important because the
feedback acquired from actual use of a product will influence the likelihood of
future purchases.
Positive performance means the brand is
retained in the evoked set and increases the likelihood it will be purchased
again. Unfavorable outcomes may lead the consumer to form negative attitudes
toward the brand, lessening the likelihood it will be purchased again or even
eliminating it from the consumer’s evoked set.
The decision
process model views consumer behaviour primarily from a cognitive orientation.
The chapter considered other perspectives by examining various approaches to
consumer learning and their implications for advertising and promotion. Behavioural
learning theories such as classical conditioning and operant (instrumental)
conditioning were dis-cussed. Problems with behavioural learning theories were
noted, and the alternative perspective of cognitive learning was discussed.
The chapter also
examined relevant external factors that influence consumer decision making.
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